The Patristic Period, Key Developments: The extent of the New Testament Canon
From the outset, Christian Theology recognized itself to be grounded in scripture. There was, however, some uncertainty as to what the term “Scripture” actually meant. The Patristic period witnessed a process of decision making, in which limits were laid down in the New Testament- a process usually known as “the fixing of the canon”. The word “canon” needs explanation. It derives from the Greek word “kanon” meaning “a rule” or “a fixed reference point”. The “canon of scripture” refers to a limited and defined group of writings, which are accepted as authoritative within the Christian Church. The term "canonical" refers to scriptural writings that are accepted to be within the canon. Thus, the Gospel of Luke is referred to as "canonical", whereas the Gospel of Thomas is "extra-canonical".
For the writers of the New Testament, the term "Scripture" meant primarily a writing of the Old Testament. However, within a short period, early Christian writers (such as Justin Martyr) were referring to the New Testament, and insisted that both were to be treated with equal authority. By the time of Irenaeus, it was generally accepted that there were four gospels; by the late second century, there was a consensus that the gospels, Acts and letters had the status of inspired scripture. Thus Clement of Alexandria recognized four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, fourteen letters of Paul (the letter to the Hebrews being considered Pauline), and Revelation. Tertullian declared that alongside the "law and the prophets" were the "evangelical and apostolic writings" which were both to be considered authoritative within the church. Gradually, agreement was reached over the list of books which were recognized as inspired scripture, and the order in which they were to be arranged. In 367, Athanasius circulated his thirty-ninth Festal Letter, which identifies the twenty-seven books of the New Testament, as we know it, as being canonical.
Debate centered especially on the number of books. The western church had hesitations about accepting Hebrews, in that it is not specifically attributed to an apostle; the eastern has reservations about Revelation. Four of the smaller books (2 Peter, 2 and 3 John and Jude) were often omitted from early lists of New Testament writings. Some writings, often outside the New Testament canon, were regarded with favor by parts of the church, although they ultimately failed to gain acceptance as canonical. Examples of this include the Letter of Clement, and the Didache, a short early manual on church morals and practices, dating to the first quarter of the second century.
The arrangement of the material was also subject to considerable variation. Agreement was reached at an early stage that the gospels should have a place of honor within the canon, followed by the Acts of the Apostles. The eastern church tended to place the "catholic letters" (James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1,2 and 3 John and Jude) before the fourteen Pauline letters. whereas the western church placed Paul's letters immediately after Acts, and followed them with the catholic letters. Revelation ended the canon in both the east and the west, although it's status was debated for quite some time within the eastern church.
What criteria was used in drawing up the canon? The basic principle appears to have been that of the recognition, rather than the imposition of authority. In other words, the works in question were recognized as already having authority, rather than having an arbitrary authority imposed on them. For Irenaeus, the church does not create the canon it acknowledges, conserves, and receives canonical scripture on the basis of the authority that is already inherent in it. Christians appear to regarded apostolic authorship as of decisive importance; others appeared to accept books without apostolic credentials. However, even though the precise method of of how the selection was made is unclear, it is certain that the canon was closed within the western church by the beginning of the fifth century. The issue of the canon would not be raised again until the time of the Reformation.
Key Theologians of the Patristic Period
During the course of this work, reference will be made to many theologians from the patristic period. The following six writers, however, are of especial importance and deserve to be singled out for a special mention.
Justin Martyr (100-165 A.D.)
Justin is perhaps the greatest of the apologists-the Christian writers of the second century who were concerned to defend Christianity in the face of intense criticism from pagan sources. In his “First Apology” Justin argued that traces of Christian truth were found in pagan writers. His doctrine of the logos spermatikos (seed-bearing word) allowed him to affirm that God had prepared the way for his final revelation of Christ through hints of it's truth in classical philosophy. Justin provides us with an important early example of a theologian who attempts to relate the gospel to the outlook of Greek philosophy, a trend especially associated with the eastern church.
Irenaeus of Lyons (130-200 A.D.) Irenaeus is believed to have been born in Smyrna (modern day Turkey), although he subsequently settled in Rome. He became Bishop of Lyons around 178, a position he held to his death two decades later. Irenaeus is noted especially
for his vigorous defense of orthodoxy in the face of challenges from Gnosticism. His most famous work, “Against Heresies” represents a
major defense of the Christian understanding of salvation, and especially of the role of tradition in remaining faithful to the apostolic witness in the face of non-Christian interpretations.
Origen (185-254 A.D.) One of the most significant defenders of Christianity in the third century, Origen provided an important foundation for the development of eastern Christian thought. His major contributions to the development of Christian thought can be seen in two major areas. In the
field of Biblical interpretation, arguing that the surface meaning of scripture was
to be distinguished from it's deeper spiritual meaning. In the field of Christology, Origen established a tradition of distinguishing between the full divinity of the Father and the lesser divinity of the son. Some scholars see Arianism as the natural consequence of this approach. Origen also adopted with some enthusiasm the idea of apocatastasis according to which every
creature-including both humanity and Satan, will be saved.
Tertullian (160-225 A.D.) Tertullian was originally a pagan from the north African city of Carthage, who converted to Christianity in his thirties. He is often regarded as the father of Latin theology on account of the major impact which he had on the western church. He defended the unity of the Old and New Testaments against Marcion, who had argued that they related to different gods. In doing so, he laid the foundations of the doctrine of the Trinity. Tertullian was strongly opposed to making Christian theology or apologetics dependent upon extra-Biblical sources. He is among the most forceful early exponents of the principle of the sufficiency of scripture, denouncing those who appeal to secular philosophies for a true knowledge of God.
Athanasius (296-373 A.D.) Athanasius' significance relates primarily to Christological issues, which became of major importance during the fourth century. Possibly while still in his twenties, he wrote the treatise “De incarnatione Verbi” (On the incarnation of the Word), a powerful defense of the idea that God assumed human nature in the person of Jesus Christ. This issue proved to be of vital importance during the Arian controversy, to which Athanasius made a major contribution. Athanasius argued that if,as Arius argued, Christ was not fully God, a series of devastating implications followed. First, it was impossible for God to redeem humanity, as no creature could redeem another creature. Second, it followed, that the Church would be guilty of idolatry, as Christians regularly worshiped and prayed to Christ. Such arguments eventually carried the day, and led to a rejection of Arianism.
Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.) In turning to deal with Aurelius Augustinus, usually known as Augustine of Hippo,or just pain “Augustine”- we encounter what is probably the greatest and most influential mind in Christianity's long history. Attracted to the Christian faith by the preaching of Bishop Ambrose of Milan, Augustine underwent and dramatic conversion experience. Having reached the age of 32 without satisfying his burning desire to know the truth, Augustine was agonizing over the great questions of human nature and destiny in a garden in Milan. He thought he heard some children singing, “Tolge lege”(Take up and read), nearby. Feeling that this was divine guidance, he found the New testament document nearest at hand-Paul's letter to the Romans-as it were, and read the fateful words, “Clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ” (Rom. 13:14). This was the final straw for Augustine, whose paganism had become increasingly difficult to maintain. As later he recalled, “a light of certainty entered my heart, and every shadow of doubt vanished.” From that moment onward, Augustine dedicated his enormous intellect to the defense and consolidation of the Christian faith, writing in a style that was both passionate and intelligent, appealing to both heart and mind.
Possibly suffering from some sort of asthma, Augustine left Italy to return to north Africa, and was made Bishop of Hippo (modern Algeria) in 395. The remaining 35 years of his life witnessed numerous controversies of major importance of the Christian church in the west, and Augustine's contribution to the resolutions of each of these was decisive. His careful exposition of the New Testament, especially the letters of Paul, gained him a reputation that continues today, as some even call him “the Second Founder of the Christian Faith” (Jerome). When the dark ages finally lifted over western Europe, Augustine's substantial program of theological writings would form the basis of a major program of theological renewal and development consolidating his influence over the western church.
A major part of Augustine's contribution lies in the development of theology as an academic discipline. The early church cannot really be said to have developed a “systematic theology”. It clarified early patristic writings against the Gnostics, and contributed to the doctrines of Christ and the Trinity.
Augustine's contribution was to achieve a synthesis of Christian thought, supremely in his treatise De civitate Dei, “On the City of God”. Like Charles Dicken's famous novel, Augustine's “City of God” is a tale of two cities- the city of the world, and the city of God. The work is apologetic in tone: Augustine is sensitive to the charge that Rome fell due to it's conversion from paganism to Christianity.
In addition, Augustine made major contributions in the three areas of Christian Theology: the doctrine of the church and sacraments, arising from the Donatist controversy, th doctrine of grace, arising from the Pelagian controversy, and the doctrine of the Trinity. Interestingly, Augustine never really explored the area of Christology, which would have benefited from his considerable wisdom and acumen.
The Patristic Period, 100-145 A.D.
Christianity had it's origins in Palestine-more specifically the region of Judea, especially the land of Jerusalem. Christianity regarded itself as a continuation and development of Judaism, and initially flourished in regions with which Judaism was traditionally associated. However, it repidly spread to neighboring regions, partially through the efforts of Christian evangelists such as Paul of Tarsus. By the end of the first century, Christianity had gained ground thoughout the eastern Mediterranean world, and even gain a significant presence in Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire. As the church in Rome became increasingly powerful, tensions began to develop between the Christian leadership at Rome and at Constantinople, foreshadowing the later schism between western and eastern churches, centered on those respective seats of power.
In the course of this expansion, a number of regions emerged as significant centers of Theological debate. Three may be singled out as having special importance, the first two of which were Greek speaking, and the third Latin speaking.
1.The citiy of Alexandria, in modern-day Egypt, which emerged as a center of Christian theological education. A distinctive style of theology began to be associated with this city, reflecting it's long standing association with the Platonic tradition. The student will find reference to “Alexandrian” approaches in areas such as Christology and biblical interpretation, reflecting both the importance and the distinctiveness of the style of Christianity associated with the area.
2.The City of Antioch and the surrounding region of Cappadocia, in modern day Turkey. A strong Christian presence came to be established in this northern region of the eastern Mediterranean at an early stage. Some of Paul's missionary journeys took him into the region and Antioch features significantly at several points in the early church, as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. Antioch itself soon became a leading center of Christian thought. Like Alexandria, it became associated with particular approaches to Christology and Biblical interpretation. The term “Antiochene” is often used to designate this distinctive theological style. The “Cappadocian fathers” were also an important theological presence in this region in the fourth century, notable for their contributions to the doctrine of the trinity.
3.Western north Africa, especially the era of modern day Algeria. In the late classical period this was the site of Carthage, a major Mediterranean city and at one time a political rival to Rome for dominance in the region. During the time when Christianity expanded to the region, it was a Roman colony. Major writers of the region include Tertullian, Cyprian of Carthage, and Augustine of Hippo.
This is not to say that other cities in the Mediterranean were devoid of significance. Rome, Constantinople, Milan, and Jerusalem were also centers of Christian theological reflection, even if none were destined to achieve the significance of their rivals.
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